{"id":1043,"date":"2026-06-13T09:59:34","date_gmt":"2026-06-13T07:59:34","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.i8zse.it\/en\/?p=1043"},"modified":"2026-06-13T10:51:52","modified_gmt":"2026-06-13T08:51:52","slug":"when-satellite-tracking-was-done-by-hand","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.i8zse.it\/en\/when-satellite-tracking-was-done-by-hand\/","title":{"rendered":"When satellite tracking was done by hand"},"content":{"rendered":"

Amateur satellite communications have always been a frontier activity, ever since Oscar-1 was launched into orbit in 1961. Today, thanks to the widespread availability of CubeSats, modern amateur radio satellites, dual-band handheld transceivers, and smartphone applications that provide real-time pass predictions and pointing information, operating through satellites has become relatively simple. With portable equipment and just a few pieces of information displayed on a phone screen, it is now possible to make contacts that, only a few decades ago, required a far more demanding technical background.<\/p>\n

The road to this simplicity, however, has been a long one.<\/p>\n

I have been active in satellite communications since the second half of the 1970s. At that time, the AMSAT satellites Oscar-6 and Oscar-7, as well as the Soviet R\/S-1 and R\/S-2 (Radio Sputnik), were operational, all in low polar orbit. Satellite operation, which represented one of the most advanced fields of amateur radio, required skills ranging from radio-frequency engineering to orbital mechanics.<\/p>\n

At the time, I operated in the so-called \u201cMode A\u201d: I transmitted on 144 MHz using an IC-202E as an exciter, followed by a small 40-watt linear amplifier and a Tonna 2\u00d74 crossed-dipole antenna with circular polarization; I received on 28 MHz with my trusty TS-120 (yes, I have always been a low-power enthusiast).<\/p>\n

The radio side was already challenging enough, but the real problem was tracking. To use a LEO satellite, it is not sufficient to know that it will rise above the horizon; one must accurately know its timing, direction, and apparent trajectory across the sky in order to maintain communication during the few minutes of visibility.<\/p>\n

Today, a smartphone app displays all this information with a few taps on the screen. Back then, we worked with paper, pencils, and transparent acetate overlays.<\/p>\n

The most common method involved using a polar map onto which a particular orbital track, drawn on acetate, was superimposed. To position it correctly, two reference points were needed: the North Pole and the EQX, that is, the point where the satellite crossed the equator from south to north. The process was rather laborious and required preliminary calculations to determine the EQX for each orbit from the published ephemerides, which were presented in a format similar to this:<\/p>\n

Satellite: AO-07<\/code><\/div>\n
Catalog number: 07530<\/code><\/div>\n
Epoch time: 14111.80120370<\/code><\/div>\n
Element set: 27<\/code><\/div>\n
Inclination: 101.4753<\/code><\/div>\n
RA of node: 192.2019 deg<\/code><\/div>\n
Eccentricity: 0.0011672<\/code><\/div>\n
Argument of perigee: 207.8808 deg<\/code><\/div>\n
Mean anomaly: 270.9515 deg<\/code><\/div>\n
Mean motion: 12.53715920 rev\/day<\/code><\/div>\n
Decay rate: -2.2e-07 rev\/day^2
\n<\/code><\/div>\n

A second overlay, also drawn on acetate and centered on the operator’s location, was then placed over the first one, allowing the satellite’s azimuth and elevation coordinates to be determined throughout the pass.<\/p>\n

The procedure was anything but straightforward. Before the overlays could even be used, the ephemerides had to be processed and the EQX determined for each useful orbit. The available data were similar to what we now know as TLEs and required a considerable amount of calculation.<\/p>\n

In Italy, a fundamental role in popularizing these techniques was played by the late Domenico Marini, I8CVS<\/strong>. Through his columns in Radio Rivista, he did far more than describe operating procedures: he clearly explained the principles of orbital mechanics and the calculation methods required to make the best use of amateur radio satellites. For many of us, he was an invaluable reference.<\/p>\n

It was while reading those articles that I decided to automate at least part of the process. Initially, I developed a FORTRAN program on an HP3000 computer that, starting from the ephemerides, identified usable orbits and calculated their azimuth and elevation coordinates relative to my station.<\/p>\n

\"Texas<\/a>Later, I set myself an even more ambitious challenge: transferring the same algorithm into a Texas SR-52 programmable calculator, which offered only 255 program steps and 20 memory registers. This led to the creation of the SAT program which, divided into three segments, could start from the ephemerides and provide real-time tracking for a single orbit.<\/p>\n

Seen through today’s eyes, I would probably describe it as a remarkable kludge, but it worked. More importantly, it allowed field operations with a pocket-sized device to perform tasks that, until shortly before, had required long sessions of manual calculation.<\/p>\n

The project attracted Domenico’s interest, and he invited me to present it at the first AMSAT Italia Symposium, held at the Nautical Institute of Torre del Greco on August 10, 1979. By then, the software had already reached version 9. This is also why, in addition to the program cards that I still keep, I prepared a fairly detailed technical documentation.<\/p>\n

Looking back on those years, what stands out is not so much the limitations of the available equipment, but rather the level of knowledge required to use a technology that we now consider almost trivial. Behind every satellite contact there were study, experimentation, and a fair amount of ingenuity.<\/p>\n

\"AMSATWhen I see a young radio amateur today making his or her first satellite QSO using a handheld transceiver and a smartphone, I think how fortunate they are. But I also think that such simplicity is the result of a journey that began many decades ago, built by countless enthusiasts who, with far more modest tools, helped make possible what we now take for granted.<\/p>\n

For those who are interested, an extract from the symposium proceedings (in Italian language) is available in the downloadable PDF here:
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Torre del Greco 1979<\/a><\/h3>\n
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AMSAT-OSCAR 7 (AO-7), launched in November 1974, is one of the most significant satellites in the history of amateur satellite communications, not only for its exceptional longevity but also for the way it was conceived and built. It is often cited as the oldest satellite still in operation today, although not continuously, after a battery failure in 1981 left it entirely dependent on solar power. Since then, its operation has become intermittent, tied to illumination cycles, yet sufficient to keep it \u201calive\u201d for decades beyond any original design expectation.<\/small><\/p>\n

AO-7 emerged at the height of AMSAT\u2019s 1970s philosophy: satellites built not by large aerospace industries, but by an international network of radio amateurs, engineers, and volunteer technicians. The project was led by AMSAT-NA (United States), which coordinated the overall development of the platform, but with a decisive contribution from AMSAT-Deutschland (Germany), which was particularly active in the design and implementation of the RF systems and the Mode B transponder. Other AMSAT groups and individual contributors also participated in the development, in a distributed collaboration model that was highly pioneering for its time.<\/small><\/p>\n

From a technical standpoint, AO-7 belongs to the so-called \u201cPhase II\u201d AMSAT class: small low-Earth-orbit satellites, with a mass of about 30 kg and a compact structure, designed to experiment with bidirectional radio communications through linear transponders. It carried two main transponders: Mode A (uplink on 145 MHz and downlink on 29 MHz) and Mode B (uplink on 435 MHz and downlink on 145 MHz, inverting). This architecture, now common in amateur satellites, represented a significant step forward at the time, as it enabled true SSB and CW communications through space rather than simple beacons or telemetry.<\/small><\/p>\n

A particularly innovative element was the introduction of high-efficiency amplification techniques developed within the European AMSAT community, such as the HELAPS system (High Efficiency Linear Amplification by Parametric Synthesis), which allowed SSB signals to be handled with much higher efficiency than conventional linear amplifiers of the era. AO-7 thus also became an orbital laboratory for advanced RF technologies, developed and tested directly by the amateur radio community.<\/small><\/p>\n

But perhaps the most revolutionary aspect of AO-7 is not only technical, but cultural: it demonstrated that international \u201cbottom-up\u201d collaboration, based on distributed expertise and voluntary contributions, could produce a functioning and scientifically valuable space system. At a time when access to space was almost exclusively the domain of governmental agencies, AO-7 provided a concrete demonstration of collaborative engineering avant la lettre.<\/small><\/p>\n

Today, AO-7 remains a nearly unique case in space history: a satellite designed for a few years of operation that, half a century later, is still occasionally used by radio amateurs. More than a technical object, it has become a living testimony to a pioneering era in which experimentation, passion, and collective ingenuity paved the way for today\u2019s era of amateur satellites and CubeSats.<\/small><\/p>\n

<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Amateur satellite communications have always been a frontier activity, ever since Oscar-1 was launched into orbit in 1961. Today, thanks to the widespread availability of CubeSats, modern amateur radio satellites, dual-band handheld transceivers, and smartphone applications that provide real-time pass predictions and pointing information, operating through satellites has become relatively simple. With portable equipment and […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":1044,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[88],"tags":[92,93,94],"class_list":["post-1043","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-satellite","tag-amsat","tag-leo","tag-sat"],"yoast_head":"\nWhen satellite tracking was done by hand - I8ZSE<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.i8zse.it\/en\/when-satellite-tracking-was-done-by-hand\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_GB\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"When satellite tracking was done by hand - I8ZSE\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Amateur satellite communications have always been a frontier activity, ever since Oscar-1 was launched into orbit in 1961. 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